title

Age determination of the wildcat (Felis silvestris): a case study of a sample from the North-Western Black Sea region (Ukraine)

author(s)

Yuri Oleinik (orcid: 0000-0001-8737-650X)

affiliation

Odesa I. I. Mechnikov National University (Odesa, Ukraine)

bibliography

Theriologia Ukrainica. 2024. Vol. 28: 69–83.

DOI

language

English, with Ukrainian summary, titles of tables, captures to figs

abstract

In recent decades, the wildcat (Felis silvestris) population has been increasing along the eastern edge of its range in Ukraine, associated with the recolonisation of territories previously inhabited by the species. An essential aspect of analysing this process is studying population dynamics, including sex and age structures. Knowing the individual age of animals is a crucial prerequisite for investigating many aspects of their life cycle and population dynamics. This information is particularly important for Felis silvestris, a rare species included in international and national lists of protected animals, for the conservation and management of its populations. This necessitates the verification of age determination methods in specific Felis silvestris populations, particularly in the south-western regions of Ukraine. To determine the age of wildcats, we employed both traditional, non-invasive methods—such as analysing suture obliteration and dental morphometric characters—and methods requiring partial tooth destruction, such as studying changes in dentin volume and cementum in the root of the canines. Cementochronology was found to be the only method allowing the wildcat population to be divided into seven year classes. Cement deposition primarily occurs at the apical tip of the canine root, allowing the use of only the lower third of the tooth for analysis. This is particularly important when working with collection materials of rare species. In the first year of life (0+), dentin fills no more than 20% of the pulp cavity width. In subsequent year classes, dentin deposition occupies at least 70% of the pulp cavity volume, enabling a clear division of the wildcat population into two groups: young (0+) and older individuals. The distance between the enamel at the neck of the canine and the edge of its alveolus is an effective tool for distinguishing young and adult individuals. The analysis of alveolar recession relative to the neck enamel can be considered a promising method for determining age groups in wildcats, including both deceased and living individuals. The use of basicranial sutures of the skull was found to be less informative: the sutures at the skull base ossify late, while the obliteration between the maxilla and premaxilla in the nasal area is only partially expressed.

keywords

Felis silvestris, cementochrono­logy, pulp cavity width, cranial sutures, canine morphometry

references

Anderson, T., Q. Wiig. 1984. Growth of the skull of Norwegian lynx. Acta Theriologica, 29 (8): 89–100. https://doi.org/10.4098/at.arch.84-8
Binder, W. J., E. N. Thomson, B. Van Valkenburgh. 2002. Temporal variation in tooth fracture among Rancho La Brea dire wolves. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 22 (2): 423–428. https://doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634(2002)022(0423:TVITFA)2.0.CO;2
Cendekiawan, T., R. W. K. Wong, A. B. M. Rabie. 2010. Relationships between cranial base synchondroses and craniofacial development: A review. The Open Anatomy Journal, 2: 67–75. https://doi.org/10.2174/1877609401002010067
Condé B., P. Schauenberg 1978. Remplacement des canines chez le Chat forestier Félis silvestris Schreb. Revue suisse de zoologie, 85 (2): 241–245. https://doi.org/10.5962/BHL.PART.75987
Crowe, D. M. 1972. The presence of annuli in bobcat tooth cementum layers. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 36 (4): 1330–1332. https://doi.org/10.2307/3799278
Currier, M. J. P. 1979. An Age Estimation Technique and Some Normal Blood Values for Mountain Lions (Felis concolor). Dissertation, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA, 1–95.
Fàbregas, M. C., C. Garcés-Narro. 2014. Validation of gum-line recession as a reliable technique to age tigers. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 60: 947–950. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-014-0869-1
Fleming, P. A., M. H. Crawford, C. Auckland, C. M. Calver. 2021. Nine ways to score nine lives — identifying appropriate methods to age domestic cats (Felis catus). Journal of Zoology, 314 (3): 211–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12869
Garcia-Perea, R. 1996. Patterns of postnatal development in skulls of Lynxes, genus Lynx (Mammalia: Carnivora). Journal of Morphology, 229: 241–254. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4687(199609)229:3%3C241::AID-JMOR1%3E3.0.CO;2-1
Garcia-Perea, R., R. A. Baquero. 1999. Age estimation in Iberian wildcats Felis sivestris, by canine tooth sections. Acta Theriologica, 44 (3): 321–327. https://doi.org/10.4098/AT.ARCH.99-30
Goraya, D. S., N. K. Hoyer, J. Kelley, S. Rao, M. Nehring, S. Van de Woude, J. E. Rawlinson. 2024. Age of Dental Apical Closure in Domestic Cats. Journal of Veterinary Dentistry, 41 (5): 369–375. https://doi.org/10.1177/08987564231220682
Grue, H., B. Jensen. 1979. Review of the formation of incremental lines in tooth cementum of terrestrial mammals. Danish Review of Game Biology, 11: 1–48.
Goswami, A., L. Foley, V. Weisbecker. 2013. Patterns and implications of extensive heterochrony in carnivoran cranial suture closure. Journal Evolution Biology, 26: 1294–1306. https://doi.org/10.1111/jeb.12127
Johnson, N. F., B. A. Brown, J. C. Bosomworth. 1981. Age and sex characteristics of bobcat canines and their use in population assessment. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 9: 203–206. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3781839
Daniels, M. J., D. Balharry, D. Hirst, A. C. Kitchener, R. J. Aspinall. 1998. Morphological and pelage characteristics of wild living cats in Scotland: implications for defining the ‘wildcat’. Journal of Zoology, 244: 231–247. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1469-7998.1998.TB00028.X
Devillard, S., T. Jombart, F. Leger, D. Pontier, L. Say, S. Ruette. 2014. How reliable are morphological and anatomical characters to distinguish European wildcats, domestic cats and their hybrids in France? Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research, 52 (2): 154–162. https://doi.org/10.1111/jzs.12049
Harris, S. 1978. Age determination in the Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) — an evaluation of technique efficiency as applied to a sample of suburban foxes. Journal of Zoology. London, 184: 91–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1469-7998.1978.TB03268.X
Herring, S. W. S. Teng. 2000. Strain in the braincase and its sutures during function. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 112: 575–593. https://doi.org/10.1002/1096-8644(200008)112:4<575::AID-AJPA10>3.3.CO;2-S
Hiller, T. L., C. Nistler, D. Reding, P. A. White, F. Bled. 2022. Sex identification and age estimation of bobcats and implications for management. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 46 (3): e1328. https://doi.org/10.1002/wsb.1328
Kitchener, A. C., N. Yamaguchi, J. M. Ward, D. W. Macdonald. 2005. A diagnosis for the Scottish wildcat (Felis silvestris): a tool for conservation action for a critically-endangered felid. Animal Conservation, 8: 223–237. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1367943005002301
Klevezal, G. A. 1996. Recording Structures of Mammals: Determination of Age and Reconstruction of Life History. Publisher: A. A. Balkema, Rottedrdam, 1–315. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9780203741146
Klevezal, G. A., S. E. Kleinenberg. 1969. Age Determination of Mammals by Layered Structure in Teeth and Bones. Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Translation Series. no. 1024: 1-1721.
Krüger, M., S. T. Hertwig, G. Jetschke, M. S. Fischer. 2009. Evaluation of anatomical characters and the question of hybridization with domestic cats in the wildcat population of Thuringia, Germany. Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research, 47 (3): 268–282. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0469.2009.00537.x
Kvam, T. 1983. Age determination in European lynx Lynx l. lynx by incremental lines in tooth cementum. Fauna Norvegica, 4: 31–36. https://doi.org/10.5324/fn.v4i0.6133
Laundré, J. W., L. Hernandez, D. Streubel, K. Altendorf, C. L. Gonzalez. 2000. Aging Mountain Lions Using Gum-Line Recession. Wildlife Society Bulletin (1973–2006), 28 (4): 963–966. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3783855
Lecis, R., M. Pierpaoli, Z. S. Birò, L. Szemethy, B. Ragni, F. Vercillo, E. Randi. 2006. Bayesian analyses of admixture in wild and domestic cats (Felis silvestris) using linked microsatellite loci. Molecular Ecology, 15: 119–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02812.x
Lee, S., K. Lee, H. Kim, J. An, J. Han, T. Lee, H. Jeong, Y. Cho. 2020. Comparison of dental radiography and computed tomography: measurement of dentoalveolar structures in healthy, small-sized dogs and cats. Journal of Veterinary Science, 21 (5): 75. https://doi.org/10.4142/jvs.2020.21.e75
Marti, I., M. P. Ryser-Degiorgis. 2018. A tooth wear scoring scheme for age estimation of the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) under field conditions. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 64: 37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-018-1198-6
Meachen-Samuels, J. A., W. J. Binder 2010. Sexual dimorphism and ontogenetic growth in the American lion and sabertoothed cat from Rancho La Brea. Journal of Zoology, 280: 271–279 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00659.x
Morris, P. 1972. A review of mammalian age determination methods. Mammal Review, 2: 69–104. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2907.1972.tb00160.x
Nakanishi, N., F. Ichinose, G. Higa, M. Izawa 2009. Age determination of the Iriomote cat by using cementum annuli. Journal of Zoology, 279: 338–348. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1469-7998.2009.00624.X
Oleinik, Yu. N. 2020. About the encounters of the wildcat (Felis silvestris schreber, 1777) in the south-west of Ukraine (Odessa region) at the beginning of the XXI century. Bulletin of the A. A. Brauner's Museum Fund, 17 (2):11–30. [Russian]
Oliveira, R., R. Godinho, E. Randi, P. C. Alves 2008. Hybridization versus conservation: are domestic cats threatening the genetic integrity of wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) in Iberian Peninsula. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. B, 363: 2953–2961. http://doi.org/10.1098 /rstb. 2008.0052
Park, K., J. Ahn, S. Kang, E. Lee, S. Kim, S. Park, S. Park, H. Noh, K. Seo. 2014. Determining the age of cats by pulp cavity/tooth width ratio using dental radiography. Journal of Veterinary Science, 15(4):557–561. http://dx.doi.org/10.4142/jvs.2014.15.4.557
Perrone, V., T. P. Gocha, P. Randolph-Quinney, N. Procopio. 2022. Tooth cementum annulation: a literature review. Forensic Sciences, 2: 516–550. https://doi.org/10.3390/forensicsci2030038
Piechocki, R., A. Stiefel. 1988. Über die Altersstruktur der Verluste der Wildkatze. Hercynia, N.F., 25: 235–258.
Potapov, О. V. 2000. New records of the European wild cat (Felis silvestris) in the Danube Delta. Vestnik zoologii, 34 (6): 88. [Ukrainian]
Ragni, B., M. Possenti. 1996. Variability of coat‐colour and markings system in Felis silvestris. Italian Journal of Zoology, 63 (3): 285–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/11250009609356146
Rager, L., L. Hautier, A. Forasiepi, A. Goswami, M. Sánchez-Villagra. 2014. Timing of cranial suture closure in placental mammals: phylogenetic patterns, intraspecific variation, and comparison with marsupials. Journal of Morphology, 275: 125–140. http://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.20203
Rengasamy, V. S., E. Van Otterloo. 2021. The skull’s girder: a brief review of the cranial base. Journal of Developmental Biology, 9 (1): 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/jdb9010003
Roulichová, J., M. Anděra. 2007. Simple method of age determination in red fox, Vulpes vulpes. Folia Zoologica, 56 (4): 440–444.
Rosenberg, P., H. Arlis, R. Haworth, L. Heier, L. Hoffman, G. LaTrenta. 1997. The role of the cranial base in facial growth: experimental craniofacial synostosis in the rabbit. Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, 99 (4): 1396–1407. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-199704001-00030
Ruengdit, S., D. Troy Case, P. Mahakkanukrauh. 2020. Cranial suture closure as an age indicator: A review. ForensicScience International, 307: 110111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.110111
Sánchez-Villagra, M. R., A. Goswami, V. Weisbecker, O. Mock, Sh. Kuratani. 2008. Conserved relative timing of cranial ossification patterns in early mammalian evolution. Evolution & Development, 10 (5): 519–530. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-142X.2008.00267.x
Schauenberg, P. 1969. L’identification du chat forestier d’Europe Felis s. silvestris Schreber, 1777 par une méthode ostéométrique. Revue Suisse de Zoologie, 76: 433–441.
Schmidly, D. J., J. A._Read. 1986. Cranial variation in the bobcat (Felis rufus) from Texas and surrounding states. Occasional papers. The Museum Texas Tech University, 101: 1–39.
Schmidt, M. J., G. Steenkamp, K. Failing, P. Caldwell, R. M. Kirberger. 2019. A contribution to age determination of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) based on radiographic analysis of the skull and postcranial morphology. PLoS ONE, 14 (6): e0217999. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone .0217999
Smirnov, V. S. 1960. Age determination and age relationships in mammals with reference to the squirrels, muskrats and five species of predators. Trudy of Institution Biology, Sverdlovsk, 14: 97–112. [Russian]
Smuts, G. L., J. T. Anderson, J. C. Austin. 1978. Age determination of the African lion (Panthera leo). Journal of Zoology (London), 185: 115–146. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1469-7998.1978.TB03317.X
Spinage, C. A. 1973. A review of the age determination of mammals by means of teeth, with especial reference to Africa. African Journal of Ecology, 11: 165–187. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.1973.tb00081.x
Stander, P. E. 1997. Field age determination of leopards by tooth wear. African Journal of Ecology, 35: 156–161. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.1997.068-89068.x
Stefen, С. 2015. Testing pulp cavity closure to estimate individual age of Felis silvestris (Carnivora: Felidae). Lynx, 46: 65–75. URL
Stuart, C. T., T. D. Stuart. 1985. Age determination and development of foetal and juvenile Felis caracal Schreber, 1776. Säugetierkundliche Mitteilungen, 32 (3): 217–229.
Tokar, G. O., O. S. Matveev. 2010. Finds of a wildcat in the Ukrainian part of the Donube Delta in 2006–2007. Zapovidna sprava v Ukraini, 16 (1): 50–52. [Russian]
Zagorodniuk, I., M. Gavrilyuk, M. Drebet, I. Skilsky, A. Andrusenko, A. Pirkhal. 2014. Wildcat (Felis silvestris Schreber, 1777) in Ukraine: modern state of the populations and eastwards expansion of the species. Studia Biologica, 8 (3–4): 233–254.
Zapata, S. C., R. Garcia-Perea, J. F. Beltran, P. Ferreras, M. Delibas. 1997. Age determination of Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) using canine radiograph and cementum annuli enumeration. Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde, 62: 119–123.
Wilson, G. 1999. Timing of apical closure of the maxillary canine and mandibular first molar teeth of cats. Journal of Veterinary Dentistry, 16: 19–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/089875649901600102
White, P. A., J. L. Belant. 2016. Individual variation in dental characteristics for estimating age of African lions. Wildlife Biology, 22: 71–77. https://doi.org/10.2981/wlb.00180